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Unit 1: Metabolic Processes - Part 1 (8.5 hours) |
Students will describe the structure and function of the macromolecules necessary for the normal metabolic functions of all living things, and the role of enzymes in maintaining normal metabolic functions. Laboratory investigations will be conducted into the transformation of energy in the cell, including photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and into the chemical and physical properties of biological molecules. Ways in which knowledge of the metabolic processes of living systems can contribute to technology development and affect community processes and personal choices in everyday life will be explained.
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Unit 2: Molecular Genetics - Part 1 (8.5 hours) |
Students will explain the concepts of gene and gene expression and the roles of DNA, RNA, and chromosomes in cellular metabolism, growth, and division, and demonstrate an awareness of the universality of the genetic code. Laboratory activities and conceptual models will be used to explain processes within the nucleus. Descriptions will be given of some of the theoretical issues surrounding scientific research into genetic continuity; the general impact and philosophical implications of the knowledge gained; and some of the issues raised by related technological applications.
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Ontario
Curriculum objectives: |
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Text: Biology 12, Nelson |
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Lesson One |
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Summary: |
Homework: |
BIOLOGY
Biology is the study of life
What is
Life?
Some
Characteristics of Living Things:
1.
Metabolism: chemical reactions which build up/synthesize material (anabolism)
or break down/decompose/degradation of material (catabolism).
2.
Reproduction using nucleic acids
Asexual reproduction: 1 cell makes 2 cells with identical nucleic acids (DNA,
RNA) to the parent cell
Types of Asexual Reproduction
-Binary fission: 1 cell makes 2 cells of the same size e.g. amoeba
-Vegetative Propagation: part of the plant forms a new plant e.g. spider plant
leaves form new spider plants
-Budding: 1 cell makes 2 cells of unequal size eg. yeast
-Fragmentation: part of an animal grows into a new animal e.g. planaria can be
cut in half to make two planaria
-Regeneration: regrowth of lost limbs, usually smaller than original limbs e.g.
salamander tails can regrow if cut
-Spore Formation: single cells remain dormant in a case until proper conditions
for growth occur e.g. toadstools
spread spores
Sexual reproduction: 2 cells (gametes) join to make 1 organism with
mixed nucleic acids from both parent cells
-gametes have half nucleic acids (haploid) and join to make full nucleic acids
(diploid)
-male gamete (smaller) is called sperm (e.g. pollen)
-female gamete (larger, with food) is called egg
-egg and sperm join (fertilization) to produce a zygote which divides
(blastula), differentiates (embryo) and grows (fetus)
Work on review sheet from textbook
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Lesson Two |
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Summary: |
Homework: |
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Reproduction
continued...
Advantages
of Asexual Reproduction: little energy expended (no mates needed), advantageous
traits are all passed on
Disadvantage
of Asexual Reproduction: less variety reduces adaptability of organism
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction: more variety to survive environmental
change
Disadvantages
of Sexual Reproduction: more energy is expended, not all offspring have
advantageous traits
3.
Growth: cells of organisms grow larger. Materials diffuse through a cell so
size is limited
-volume will increase at a faster rate than surface area, so cell must
split to survive
4. Movement under own power: cells use chemical energy (usually adenosine triphosphate) to move themselves
5.
Response to Stimulus (change in the environment)
receptor cells: receive messages from environment
e.g. chemoreceptors detect chemicals (e.g. tongue, nose)
photoreceptors detect light (e.g. eyes)
mechanoreceptors detect touch, movement (e.g. skin, ears)
thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature
afferent
nerves: carry messages to the spine
association
nerves: in the spine and brain, decide how to respond to the message
efferent
nerves: carry messages from the spine
effectors:
cells that respond to stimulus (muscle or glands)
6. Alter
the Environment
-material
is produced or used up from the environment e.g. oxygen
and sugar are consumed
wastes
are produced (solid = feces, liquid = urine, gas = carbon dioxide, methane,
energy = heat)
Quiz next day on six characteristics of life
Work on MSDS safety sheets for remainder of class (collect these questions next day
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Lesson Three |
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Summary: |
Homework: |
Quiz on characteristics of life
HIERARCHY OF MATTER
A hierarchy of matter is an arrangement of types of matter from least complex/smallest to most complex/largest
1. Elementary
particles – have mass and volume, smallest units of matter discussed in
this course
e.g. p+ protons have +1 charge, n0 neutrons have
no charge, e- electrons have a -1 negative charge
2. Atoms/elements
– a collection of elementary particles with protons and neutrons in nucleus,
electrons in orbitals around nucleus
e.g. C, H, O, N, S, P, Na, K, Ca, Fe
3. Molecules/compounds
– two or more atoms chemically bonded together
e.g. H2O, CO2, O2, H2, NaCl
4. Complex
compounds – large groups of bonded atoms
e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
5. Organelles
– functional units of eukaryotic cells
e.g. mitochondria, chloroplast, nucleus
6. Cells
– smallest living things with all characteristics of life
Organism: able to carry out life functions on its own
Unicellular organism: 1 cell large, must be on their own (e.g. bacteria,
protozoa)
Simple Multicellular Organisms: can live on own or in groups (e.g.
volvox, slime molds)
Complex Multicellular Organisms: must live as a group of cells (e.g.
humans, oak)
Hierarchy within complex multicellular organisms
i.
cells – smallest living parts
ii.
tissue – group of cells with same function (e.g. muscle is made up of many
muscle cells)
iii.
organ – group of tissues with same function (eg. Heart consists of nerve,
muscle and connective tissue)
iv.
organ system – group of organs doing same function (e.g. digestive
system consists of stomach, mouth, intestines and other organs)
v. complex multicellular organisms -group of organs systems working together
7. Population – A number of one species in one place at one time e.g. There are 100 people in this room today
8. Ecosystem
– a group of populations (a community) interacting with the environment
Biotic – living components of ecosystem
Abiotic – non-living components of ecosystem
e.g. forest with rocks, birds and deer is an ecosystem
9. Biome
– a group of communities interacting with each other over a very large area
with similar climate
e.g. tundra, boreal forest
10. Biogeographical area –large area with a number of biomes (a continent…e.g. Australia)
11. Biosphere – surface of planet with living things (e.g. surface of earth)
Quiz next day on hierarchy of matter/hierarchy within complex multicellular organisms
Work on hierarchy within cells and functions of cell parts
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Lesson Four |
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Summary: (U1,D1 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
Quiz on hierarchy of matter/hierarchy within complex multicellular organisms
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
Elementary particles are the smallest particles of matter we will deal with in this course
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Name |
Charge |
Symbol |
Location |
mass |
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PROTON |
+1 |
p+ |
nucleus |
1 amu |
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ELECTRON |
-1 |
e- |
shells |
0 amu (very small) |
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NEUTRON |
0 |
no |
nucleus |
1 amu |
BOHR-RUTHERFORD
ATOMIC MODELS
-Bohr-Rutherford
models illustrate the structure of the first 20 elements
-when
adding electrons to these models follow stable octet rule: electrons fill first
shell with 2 e- and then 8e- in the outer shells)
12
C
12 = atomic mass in amu (protons and neutrons)
6
6 = atomic number (p+, usually same number of e- unless
the atom is charged)
C = symbol of the element (e.g. carbon)
e.g. 6 p+, 6 no, 6 e-, Carbon, draw with 6 p+ and 6 no in center of the atom, 2 e- in first shell, 4 e- in next shell
Try 14
C
and
7 Li + (+ charge for each e- lost, - charge for each
e- gained)
6
3
Carbon:
6 p+, 6 e-, 8 no
Lithium: 3 p+, 2 e-, 4 no
Change number of protons = new atom is formed...the atomic number determines the type of atom
Change number of electrons = ION (charged atoms) forms e.g. Mg 2+(lost 2 e-), Cl- (gained 1 e-)
Change
number of neutrons = ISOTOPE (two atoms of same type with different mass) forms
15 N has 7 p+, 8 no, 7 e-
14 N has 7 p+, 7 no, 7 e-
7
7
Both are nitrogen
Valence
electrons: electrons in outer shell of atom
e.g.
35 Cl has 2 e- in first shell, 8 e- in second
shell, 7 e- in third shell
17
so it contains 7 valence e-
-this is drawn with a Lewis structure that shows only the atomic symbol and valence e-
Quiz next day on Bohr-Rutherford models
Assign Text Books and homework
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Lesson Five |
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Summary: (D1 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
Quiz on Bohr-Rutherford models
CHEMICAL BONDS
Chemical
bonds join two or more atoms join together using
-atoms form these bonds by chemical reactions which allow them to fill their
valence shell with electrons by gaining, losing or sharing electrons
-when the outer valence shell is filled with electrons the atom is stable
Valence: number of valence electrons needed to gain or lose in order to fill valence shell
Ionic
bonds form when one atom gives electrons to another to complete valence shells and ions form
-the atoms with opposite charges are attracted to each other...this attraction
forms an ionic bond
e.g. Li has 1 valence electron and F has 7 valence electrons
-in order to fill it's valence shell, Li must lose 1
e- (or gain 7...it is easier to lose 1)
-in oder to fill it's valence shell, F must
gain 1 e- (or lose 7...easier to gain 1)
Li will give a single electron to F resulting in a +1
charge for Li and a –1 charge for F
-the molecule LiF forms as the opposite charges on Li+
and F- attract each other
-ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals
Covalent
bonds form when one atom shares electrons with another atom
e.g.
F has 7 valence electrons and two F may join when they share one pair of electrons (giving
both 8)
-this forms a molecule of F2
N has 5 valence electrons and may complete the valence shell by sharing 3
electrons with another N
-these three pairs of shared electrons form a triple bond
(one for each shared pair) to make N2
These bonds form between non-metals or anything with a
hydrogen
Pure covalent bond: if atoms share the electrons equally they form a pure covalent bond
(usually from atoms of the same type...H2,
Cl2, F2, O2...these are called diatomic
molecules)
Electronegativity: ability of an atom to attract electrons
If
two atoms have the same electronegativity, a pure covalent bond results as
electrons are equally shared
If
the electronegativity is different, one atom will get the electrons slightly
more of the time than the other
This
results in a slight positive charge (+dipole) on the atom with the lower
electronegativity
and
a slight negative charge (-dipole) on the atom with the higher
electronegativity
e.g. In
water O has greater electronegativity than H and there as a result O has a –
dipole and H has a + dipole
The
bonding is called "Polar Covalent" if it results in dipole
formation
Molecular Formula: shows the number and type of atoms
Structural Formula: shows the arrangement of atoms
Students should the molecular and structural formula of glucose and fructose
using their textbooks
Isomer:
two atoms with the same molecular formula but different structural
formula are called isomers e.g. fructose and glucose
Complete sheets on chemistry and hand in
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Lesson Six |
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Summary: (U2,U4 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
HYDROCARBONS
Organic Compounds are any compound that contains Carbon and Hydrogen (may contain other chemicals)
Four main organic compounds studied in this course are the complex compounds Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
Hydrocarbons:
only have carbon and hydrogen (nothing else) e.g. hexane (C6H14)
-energy is stored in covalent bonds joining C-H
Derived
hydrocarbons: Groups of atoms called radicals may be joined to hydrocarbons to
give the molecule
distinct characteristics
(these radicals are also
called functional groups)
R, R' = rest of
molecule/any other atoms
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Functional Group |
Structure |
Functional Group |
Structure |
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O |
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O R - C - CH3 |
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O R - C - O - R' |
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O |
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O |
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O R -O- P - OH |
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O |
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Work
on functional group worksheet
Anabolic
Condensation (dehydration) Reactions
Anabolic
= build up/synthesis of material to make larger molecules
Condensation/dehydration
= produce water
General
Formula: A + B ----> C (large) + water
Catabolic
Hydrolysis Reactions
Catabolic
= break down/decompose/degrade larger molecules into smaller molecules
Hydrolysis
= use water up
General
Formula: C (large) + water -------> A + B
THERMODYNAMICS
Laws of Thermodynamics: anabolic and catabolic reactions obey the
laws of thermodynamics
1.
Conservation of Energy: energy is not created or destroyed in a closed system although it may
change form
2. Energy moves/changes into more random forms (usually thermal/heat)
Monomer:
smallest molecule of a certain complex compound (e.g. glucose, amino
acids, nucleotides)
Polymer:
a chain of monomers joined by anabolic condensation reactions
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates
(sugar) – contain C, H, O in an approximate 1:2:1 ratio
Monomer
of carbohydrate is called A monosaccharide, e.g. glucose, which forms a ring in
water
Finish functional group worksheet
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Lesson Seven |
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Summary: (U2 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates have carbons numbered 1-6 in a clockwise direction starting on the right
Other
isomers of glucose are fructose, mannose and galactose
-the
number of carbons in monosaccharides differ
triose: three carbon sugar
pentose: five carbon sugar
hexose: six carbon sugar
-the
type of functional groups (besides hydroxyl) in monosaccharides may differ
resulting in different behaviours
aldoses: contain aldehyde
ketoses: contain ketone
Synthesis
of Monosaccharides:
Photosynthesis
red
and blue light + 6CO2 + 6H2O ---chlorophyll---> 6O2
+ C6H12O6 + heat
energy
energy energy
(entropy increases)
Breakdown (degradation) of Monosaccharides:
Cellular
respiration
36
ADP + 36 phosphate + 6O2 + C6H12O6
---enzymes----> 36 ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O + heat
energy
useful energy
energy
(entropy increases)
Synthesis
of Disaccharides (polymers of two or three monosaccharides are called
oligosaccharides):
Two
monosaccharides join by an anabolic condensation reaction
glucose
+ glucose ----> maltose + water (see figure 8 (a), pg. 31)
The two
glucose are joined (anabolic) at a 1’- 4’ glycosidic (carbon 1 and 4 of the
sugar are joined) linkage
producing maltose and water (condesation/dehydration)
glucose
+ glucose ----->
maltose + water
glucose
+ fructose ----->
sucrose + water
glucose
+ galactose ----->
lactose + water
C6H12O6
+ C6H12O6 ------> C12H22O11
+ H2O
isomers
isomers
Breakdown/decomposition
of Disaccharides
One
disaccharide and water are broken down into two monosaccharides with a catabolic
hydrolysis reaction.
An enzyme is use to aid in this reaction
maltose
+ water ----maltase-----> glucose
+ glucose
sucrose
+ water ----sucrase------> glucose + fructose
lactose
+ water ----lactase-------> glucose + galactose
C12H22O11
+ H2O ----enzyme------> C6H12O6
+ C6H12O6
isomers
isomers
Draw the breakdown of maltose using pg. 31, figure 8(a) as a guide, only the opposite direction
Test next class on introductory material (lessons 1-6)
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Lesson Eight |
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Summary: |
Homework: |
TEST ON LESSONS 1- 6
Test on introduction/basic chemistry
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Lesson Nine |
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Summary: (U2,D3 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
POLYSACCARIDES
Polysaccharides are polymer sugars with glucose as a
monomer
Four
main polysaccharides are: starch, cellulose (made by plants)/ glycogen, chitin
(made by animals, some fungi)
I. STARCH
Starches are polysaccharides made by plants, insoluble in water and used
in plants to store energy.
Amylose and Amylopectin are two types of polysaccharide
found in starch.
In general starch is a mixture of 25% Amylose and 75% Amylopectin
(although variability does exist)
(a) Amylose structure: -glucose are joined into a chain with 1-4 glycosidic linkages (any length)
Synthesis/buildup
of amylose:
1.
glucose is made by photosynthesis
red and blue light + 6CO2 + 6H2O ---chlorophyll---> 6O2
+ C6H12O6 + heat
2.
glucose + glucose -----> maltose + water (anabolic condensation)...learn
structures
3.
maltose + maltose -----> amylose + water (anabolic condensation)...know
general structure of amylose
Degradation/Breakdown
of amylose:
1.
amylose + water ----amylase---> maltose + water (catabolic hydrolysis)
2.
maltose + water ----maltase----> glucose + glucose (catabolic hydrolysis)
3.
cellular respiration breaks glucose down
36 ADP + 36 phosphate + 6O2 + C6H12O6
---enzymes----> 36 ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O + heat
4.
ATP is used for life functions
(b)
Amylopectin structure: -glucose are joined into chains with 1-4 glycosidic linkages
-chains of 24-30 (1-4 linkage) glucoses are joined to main chain after
every 12 (1-4 linkage)
glucoses with a 1-6 linkage joining branches
Synthesis of amylopectin: see sythesis of
amylose
Degradation of amylopectin: see degradation of
amylose
II. CELLULOSE
Cellulose is a polysaccharide made by plants, insoluble in water and is used
for the structure of plant cell walls.
Cellulose structure: chains of glucose with 1-4 glycosidic linkages, any
length, with every second glucose flipped.
Synthesis
of cellulose:
1.
Photosynthesis produces glucose:
red and blue light + 6CO2 + 6H2O
---chlorophyll---> 6O2 + C6H12O6 + heat
2.
glucose + glucose -------> cellubiose + water (anabolic
condensation)...learn structures
3.
cellubiose + cellubiose -->cellulose + water(anabolic condensation)...know
general structure of cellulose
Degradation
of cellulose:
1.
cellulose + water ----cellulase--->cellubiose + cellubiose (catabolic
hydrolysis)
2.
cellubiose + water---emulsin---> glucose + glucose (catabolic hydrolysis)
3.
cellular respiration breaks glucose down
36 ADP + 36 phosphate + 6O2 + C6H12O6
---enzymes----> 36 ATP + 6CO2 + 6H2O + heat
4.
ATP is used for life functions
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Lesson Ten |
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Summary: (U2,D3 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
POLYSACCARIDES (continued)
III. GLYCOGEN
Glycogen is a polysaccharide made
by animals, insoluble in water and used in animals to store energy.
Humans store one days supply of glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Glycogen
Structure: -glucose are joined into chains with 1-4 glycosidic linkages
-chains
of 6 (1-4 linkage) glucoses are joined to main chain after less than 12 (1-4 linkage)
glucoses with a 1-6 linkage joining branches
Synthesis/buildup
of glycogen: (see synthesis amylose)
1.
glucose is made by photosynthesis
2.
glucose + glucose -----> maltose + water (anabolic condensation)...learn
structures
3.
maltose + maltose -----> glycogen + water (anabolic condensation)...know
general structure of glycogen
Degradation/Breakdown
of glycogen:
1.
glycogen + water ----amylase---> maltose + water (catabolic hydrolysis)
2.
maltose + water ----maltase----> glucose + glucose (catabolic hydrolysis)
3.
cellular respiration breaks glucose down
4.
ATP is used for life functions
IV. CHITIN
Chitin
is a polysaccharide made by animals and fungi, insoluble in water.
Chitin is used for the structure of fungal cell walls and insect/crustaceans exoskeletons.
Chitin Structure: chains of glucose with 1-4 glycosidic, any length, and contains nitrogen.
SOLUBILITY
Substances
that are water soluble (able to dissolve) in water include monosaccharides,
disaccharides, amino acids, nucleotides, glycerol.
These substances are polar and form hydrogen bonds with water to allow
dissolving.
Substances
that are insoluble in water include starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin,
proteins, nucleic acids and lipids.
Lipids don’t dissolve because they are non-polar (unable to form hydrogen bonds
with water).
Water
has trouble getting into the larger polar polymers like polysaccharides,
proteins and nucleic acids to dissolve them.
Dissolving
occurs when water surrounds the substance and forms hydrogen bonds with it. (see NaCl dissolving
on page 18 of the text)
-water
is polar and the negative dipole (found on the more electronegative element,
oxygen) binds to any
positive charge or dipole,
-the
positive dipole of water (found on hydrogen) binds to any negative charge or
dipole.
-Non-polar
substances are unable to form hydrogen bonds (no charge or dipole) and so these
do not dissolve in water.
LIPIDS
Lipids are
any hydrophobic compound containing C, H, O are called lipids (this group includes
a large variety of substances).
Lipids are not soluble in water because they are non-polar.
Triglycerides: These lipids are used for long term storage of energy in animals
(fats) and plants
(oils).
Triglycerides
are amphipathic: part of substance is hydrophilic (polar) and part of substance
is hydrophobic (non-polar).
Synthesis
of triglycerides:
1
glycerol (alcohol...polar/hydrophilic) + 3 fatty acids (non-polar/hydrophobic)
are joined...this is NOT A POLYMER
This
synthesis consists of three anabolic condensation reactions.
Three hydroxyl groups on the glycerol and the carboxylic acid groups on the
three fatty acids join to lose water and form ester linkages.
(see page 37 of text)
O
ll l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l
HO - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -
l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l
l
O
- C - OH
ll l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l
l
HO - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C
- + - C - OH
----------------->
l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l
l
- C - OH
O
l
ll l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l
HO - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -
l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l
3 saturated fatty
acids
+ glycerol
O
l ll l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l
- C - O - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -
l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l
l O
l ll l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l
- C - O - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C
- + 3H2O
l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l
l O
l ll l l
l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
- C - O - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C -
l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l
Saturated Triglyceride (Fat) + 3 water
The products of this reaction are one triglyceride and three water molecules.
The chains of fatty acids consist of 16-18 carbons
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Lesson Eleven |
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Summary: (U2 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
CARBOHYDRATE LAB
Do complete carbohydrate lab
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Lesson Twelve |
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Summary: (U2 from unit 1) |
Homework: |
LIPIDS (continued)
Saturated
Fatty Acids: these complex compounds are used to make fats (triglycerides) in
animals
-saturated fatty acids form solids at room temperature
-they are "saturated" because they are completely full of C-H
covalent bonds which store energy (only single bonds)
-the length of a saturated fatty acid is 16-18 carbons long (usually an even
number)
O
ll l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l l
l l l
HO - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C - C